The Trojan women Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

The Trojan women - Assignment Example His brave abduction of the beautiful Helen, wife of Menelaus, sparked off the Trojan War .â€Å"†¦..Athens was a city ostensibly at peace but feverishly preparing a massive military expedition to far-off Sicily, a war of choice whose purpose†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Euripides, et al pg. 4). Paris is self-centered person and portrays significant egocentrism and often unmanly. He fights effectively with a bow and arrow and never with the more manly sword or spear but rather often lacks the spirit of going to the battle and prefers to sit in his room making love to Helen while others fight for him. This rare romantic indulgence by a man during war earns Paris scorn from both Hector and Helen. Paris is significant in the storyline since his craving desire and eventual sexual relationship with Helen is the cause of the war and surrounding conflicting political interests in troy. He finally died from the same war he contributed in its flare up and his wife was later married by his brother Deiphobus (Euripides, et al.34-7). Paris represents the stereotype that historical prophesies hold as his marriage to Helen went in line with the earlier Aphrodite, the Goddess of love. The moral lesson that can be learnt from this case humility and chastity which Paris lacked and led to a series of bloody atrocities as indicated by Trojan

Central problems with MAINSTREAM ECONOMICS Essay

Central problems with MAINSTREAM ECONOMICS - Essay Example There are various assumptions that are related to mainstream economics. One of them is the rational choice theory where individuals continually seek for the most cost effective means of achieving their desired goals with less reflection on the worthiness of the desired goal. The basic idea in here is individuals trying to maximize their benefits while at the same time reducing their costs. People decide on how they ought to act by making comparison of the resulting costs and benefits of their courses of action. Thus, the society in question develops a pattern of behavior in relation to these choices made. Another assumption is that of the representative agent. This refers to atypical decision maker of a given type for instance the typical firm or consumer. The notion behind this is that it is much easier to consider one typical decision maker rather than analyzing many of these different decisions (Nadeau 2009). However, economists ignore the representative agent when the differences occurring between individuals are central to the arising central point. The other assumption is that of rational expectation where the prediction of the future made by an agent of all economically relevant variables are not systematically wrong and the fact that all errors made are random. This shows that the expectations of the agents are the true statistical expected values. Much of the modeling of this modern economics explores the notion that other complicating factors have on various models. Here, individuals are viewed as units with a similar goal, which they are capable of maximizing through their rational behavior. The only difference arises in the specific objective geared towards maximization where individuals tend to maximize on their utility and firms tend to maximize on profits. There also exists a difference in the process of maximization

Motion Control Techniques In Visual Effects Industry Film Studies Essay

Motion Control Techniques In Visual Effects Industry Film Studies Essay In this research we will see the motion control rigs and its contribution to create the realistic movement of the camera with help of the computer softwares. Though it is very difficult at the student level to create such a rig and experiment with it with the available budget I will try to build a motion control rig and control it with the help of the computer programming. It is a long process. The main advantage of the motion control rig is it is able to reproduce the same movement very accurately in a short period of time which is highly impossible for human hand to achieve. This report will contain the information about the motion control rig and its uses with advantages over the traditional camera cinematography to achieve the visual effects in the film. Introduction Motivation The filmy camera action which is solely dependent on the work and instincts of the cinematographer is very difficult work and if you want to shoot the same scene with same action and the camera movement it is highly impossible to achieve that with a traditional camera work. Even if you try to create that action in the computer graphics software it is very difficult and time taking process, which requires too many efforts to achieve the goal. The main disadvantage of that is if you are not able to do it perfectly it can spoil all the work, time and money invested because the film wont look like as you have imagined finally. So its a big loss of the everyones work process. The most recent technological improvement to solve the problem which too many studios are facing is they are developing their own hardwares and motion control rigs which can be controlled by the computer systems and can store the movement of the camera which a cameraman is handling physically. So the person can achieve whatever motion he wants repeatedly that to naturalistic. But everyone cant afford these all the things to do and the person who is doing that must have sound knowledge of all the departments to build a motion control rig which needs to be done by experts. So subject is if this motion control system can be used at an affordable price to explore the ideas by the low budget and new comers film makers to experiment with visual effects. Definition of Motion Control In our day to day life if we go and check out the technology related to the entertainment segment you might hear very complex terms as multipass , go motion, slit scan, streaking which you might not be aware of but you have actually seen it on the screen in the movies and TV advertisements for example the Star Wars etc. The technology of the Motion control system is developed for the need of creating the visual effects and animation and to have more control over it with the help of the computer programs. So motion control is the medium of technology to combine all the elements needed to create the amazing world of the special effects. As you are controlling the motion of the camera with help of the computer programs you have more options and ideas to create a movement is an added advantage. The main advantage of the motion control systems that it repeats the same action with great accuracy and that is the reason this technology is being favored nowadays by most of the film makers. Many of us may argue with possibility that the actions which we can shoot easily with the motion control systems can be shoot by the traditional cameraman with the efforts but the accuracy level of that action wont be the same at any level that shot been produced because we are shooting it with human hands with some limitations. And also it takes more time for completing the shot if you do it manually. The main motive of using the motion control system is to produce the naturalistic camera movement within a short time and at the affordable cost to get the amazing output for the films.. Motion control, is the foundation upon which maximum visual effects work stands (Alex Alvarez, Director at Gnomon) In this research report the main area of study is to explore the techniques used in the motion control systems and how those are far better than the traditional methods of shooting for creation of the visual effects. The literature study for the motion control systems will include the history of the motion control system and need for it and the future of the same. We will also focus on the use of the different cameras to be used on the motion control rigs and how that helps in the pre visualization stage previously. The last part of my research will conclude the main motive for this dissertation is how this technology gives more control and plays a vital role and also how it is a great tool or opportunity for the low budget film makers and new comers to create the new world of the visual effects. Motion control the name itself derives that it is meant to be use to get control over the motion or movement which can be the change in the position of the camera or might be the rotation of the axis of the camera in the space. As explained above if we wish to create the wonderful world of the special effects it is the need to be accurate with our actions at the stage of the production while shooting the footage. This is the place where exactly the motion control plays the most important role to give the accurate and the repetition of the action or movement. But in earlier times because of lack of the knowledge and technology the reliability of the Motion control systems was an issue and the reason for not getting its credit for its vital role in the production stage. If you try out and go back to history you will find the only other option to create the spectacular special effects is to use the computer softwares and the virtual cameras in that which is highly complicated and a very much time consuming process which also requires the expertise in the softwares. The Significance of Motion Control to the Film Industry The significance and importance of motion control to the film industry, includes the research done with help of the literature and industry news along with views of the professional people in interviews. The people had very different views regarding the role of the motion control systems in the movies as well as its necessity to the industry. After doing this research I came to an approach that if you really wish to the movie with motion control rig it should be built very professionally and with quality materials or else if you do it with the temporary basis structure it is not reliable at any point to create the good output as you have expected or imagines with a waste of money and time. The importance of the motion control systems for the film industry should be observed and clarified on the basis of its previous success and the failure reports and not on the persons likes and dislikes about the use of the technology. You can see the impact of the movies recently made on the viewers minds because of the spectacular world of the special effects is because of the use of the motion control system. I would say it is not the most important aspect as before use of motion control systems, films were made just fine but it gives film makers more options with what they can do with cameras (M. Thompson, personal communication, March 25, 2010). Here the point to be noted is that technology is not the ultimate source but just the medium that it helps to tell the story in a very different and a strong perspective. That is the contribution of the motion control systems to the film industry. Motion control has given too much freedom to control the movement of the cameras while shooting. If you go back to history and check out if the films which were the greatest hits of all the times with the spectacular special effects would never have been possible without use of technology of the motion control system. So you can imagine the really ordinary version of the Star Wars with the usual special effects as in any TV serials. Because of the strong advantages of the motion control system nowadays it has started to make its own place now in the production pipeline of the VFX film industry very rapidly. And this is the need for the todays style of filmmaking as it is the different and very strong medium to convey the story in more beautiful way. The difference between a failed shot and a spectacular shot can often boil down to the camera movement (A. Hargreaves, personal communication, March 31, 2010). Research Questions and hypothesis 1. Reason for Using Motion Control Motion control is a system technology that enables the programming and repetition of the motion of the cameras very accurately .The advantage of this technology is we can shoot various special effects shots in very less time instantly, which are highly impossible to create without Motion Control or can only be possible to do using a non-moving camera. With the help of Motion control we can get really natural and stunning looking shots like we want to move the camera in a scene to follow a pattern of subject or an action, so it plays a very vital role while shooting. I will give one example of the special effect which is pretty simple as a scene including a guy is just walking on a road and gradually starts disappeared into air while walking. This is can be done by shooting 2 takes. In the first take the guy will walk on the road and in the second take will be the road. In the process of editing the editor will take the two takes and will merge with each other slowly so that it appear s like a guy is disappeared in the air. This kind of shot is quite simple to achieve only if the camera is steady, but when there is the movement of camera this shot is not possible without the Motion Control because the 2 takes shot will not match in perspective and speed so we cannot merge it. Like this with the motion control we can shoot innumerable scenes of the special effects. 2. Use of motion Control in live action films In live action films we have to concentrate on too many things at a time. Motion control system can repeat the camera movement properly and accurately which includes change of focus, zooming and sometimes to control the lights so all important work is done by the motion control rig so the director can focus on the actors mainly and their acting without any worry about camera movements and continuity. This is a very beneficial reason for using motion control rig as it saves money and also the time. This is more useful when you have hired very talented actors you can set up all the settings and camera movements so when the actors come on the sets you can start the shoot right away for saving the time. 3. Setting up a movement on a Motion Control System Since many years people and technicians have developed various methods for setting up the movements on the Motion control rig. Which I understood I have divided them in parts for better understanding. 1) Direct enter movement-Traditionally the person has a remote control to control the rig and he sets it up at the position from which he wants to start and fix the position by the remote control. After fixing the start position he will move the rig to next position where he intends it to be at and again with remote control he saves that place. This king of camera movement setup gives movement along 3 points. Usually to shoot any shot 2 to 5 points is necessary. Those points on the motion path are joined by the computer using software. While setting up this move the person decides for that scene the number of frames to be taken and with which speed the camera should move. Then you can be ready for the shooting. 2)The Mimic movement-For this movement a hardware is available which allows the person to set up the movement by pushing the rig like crane or dolly and with the help of wheels to record the movement been done. As soon as the movement has been set you can repeat it at your desirable speed like other movements. Whenever a director wants the hand held feel for the movement or for the unpredictable behaviors for animals make use of this hardware to set up a movement. 3) The movement imported from CGI packages- If you are friendly with CG software as Softimage/Xsi and Maya you can decide and create the own movement and import those in the motion control system. With the help of this you can do very unique and complicated movements also. 4. Advantages of the Motion Control in Post production Post production part of the film depends on the very well shot scenes. Motion Control is behind the scenes master for the special effects which enables the scenes from the physical world to be merged and layered with the software help and effects. Motion control is a production device because of this all the people give more importance and credit for the special effects to the computer graphics software but cant understand that without the important role of the motion control footage these special effects wouldnt have been so special. The additional advantage of using the motion control is that it gives the accurate movements and perspective so it becomes easy to export that to software directly so that the scenes can be composed and merged together very easily. 5. Accuracy count of the Motion Control The movement of the each axis which is controlled motion is measured to an extent of micron level which is done with the help of optical encoders the electronic machines attached to the motors which is too fine extent that is visible to eyes. Due to the heat generated by the heavy and bright lights the metals with which the rigs are made up of tend to expand. As the measurement is too small it affects the calculation. But this doesnt happen so often. 6. Tracking verses Motion Control The calculation which the tracking gives for the position of camera in space is derivable only forms 2d footage. The condition on which the foreground and background elements can be merged with the live action footage is position and path of the camera. In motion control system first we shoot with the rig and then calculate the camera path movement and export it to the software. As the motion control camera system is aware of the position of the camera in space very accurately its very simple, convenient and faster to export the data to the softwares. The need for the motion control cannot be deleted by the tracking concept because of its accuracy and complicated camera movements. Motion control is the one and only one solution for the desired result of multiple pass scenes. The concept of tracking is heavily dependent on the fixed markers in the background to calculate the movement of the camera path. Sometimes these markers are difficult to see because the markers wont be in focus or they will be out of the frame so it wont work out according to wish. Actually we can use the previous tracking data calculation to export it to the motion control path of the camera which can be available as element for the foreground in live action shoot. This can be useful in the film industry especially for new comers to experiment the old moves with new technology again. 7. Benefit of Motion Control in pre visualization The significance of the pre visualization of the shot while designing and planning the film is increasing day by day. Pre visualization gives the perspective of the producer, director and cinematographer of the look of the final scene. The pre visualization stage eliminates the chances of the heavy and costly mis understandings, helps to prepare the shot, enables the set designers to calculate the space for the sets, positioning of the sets, enables the cameraman for the better understanding of the lights to be used in a scene, so ultimately it saves the time and lots of money. So the camera movement which can be fixed like this can be directly given to the motion control camera system rig as it has been visualized previously in the pre visualization stage. 8. List of cameras can be used on Motion control rig The motion control rig can handle most number of the film cameras with different sizes and weights. The cameras best suitable for the motion control are as follows- 1. Fries Mitchell 2. Mitchell 3. Arri 435s 4. Arri IIIs 5. Movie cam 6. Compacts 7. Panavision 8. Broadcast video cameras and camcorders 9. HD video cameras. 9. Different motion control systems The 1st is named as Cyclops which is studio based motion control system. This is considered as the best suitable system for motion control. It has unique qualities as it is extremely rigid, it can attain the high speed motion around 4 m/s and also can attain the high heights as more than 7m lens. The 2nd one is named as Milo which is a large system with portability. The main advantage of its design that it can be easily moved from one location to other comfortably because you can build it very quickly compared to other rigs and also dismantles it easily. It can give speed very closer to the speeds of the Cyclops, but it cant attain that much height as it is very small. The Milo has another option for the longer reach is that it has a longer arm. But the point of concern is it is not as rigid as the Cyclops. The 3rd one is named as Juno. It is the smallest rig, which is portable as well. It has a fixed arm. It contains a head with parallelogram to keep it to the level. The advantage of its design that can be easily accommodate in a very less space which can fit thorough the standard doorways. So because of this advantage you can shoot comfortably I the commercial complexes and buildings. As compared to Milo it has less height and reach than Milo. 10. Reliability of the Motion Control System While designing the motion control rigs the main concern is always the reliability. If you go and check out the pages from history you will get to know that people had misbelieve in the motion control systems because of the failure of the equipment to work at the proper time when needed. That got the motion controls very bad names in few countries because of many home made motion control systems assembled to give quick and cheap deals to satisfy the persons needs at that time. When we are shooting the quality product we cant deal with such thing to compromise with reliability of the parts. So regularly it should maintain and if any issues they can be solved quickly and completely. Cyclops and Milo rigs have got the very good name and reliability in the film industry. Background History Overview of Motion Control Motion Control and the computer used to control require different calculations or work processes. Even though these processes come from different areas of research they quickly became linked for purposes such as VFX. The US defense department first developed the concept of motion control for use in missile guidance systems. The earliest VFX use of motion control is perhaps in 1985 at the famous NYIT graphics lab Tom Brigham and J.P. Lewis implemented a rig (Seymour, M. 2004) The advancements in technology as well as developments in CPU and graphics speed started to make video editing and VFX production possible to the film industry. In a storytelling process person needs to show too many imaginary illusions to convey the story more beautifully. To show and express these illusions we have been gifted with one technology that is term called as special effects, which are usually used in film, television, theater, or entertainment industries. The concept of Special effects is categorized divided into the parts named as of optical effects and mechanical effects. As the years passed the film industry has grown with too many technologies mainly the digital techniques because of which we are now enable to realize the difference between the special effects and visual effects. The visual effects mean the one which are created during the process of the post production digitally. The special effect means those are created with the help of the cameras mechanically on the sets while shooting. The computer graphics has been playing important role with special effects from the period of 1990s.The main advantage of the computer graphics is that it allows the filmmakers to get rid of the traditional limitations to create the effects and gives more control over it which is more convenient and fine to achieve with the help of this technique. This technology saves money and time both at the greater extents many of the special effects which we used to create mechanically are went to lower hand by the computer graphics. The first motion picture special effect to be considered as was the time in 1857 when Oscar Gustave Fletcher Rejlander combined the different parts of the 32 photographs in one image. The first commonly granted special effect in the industry was in 1895 by Alfred Clark .At the time of shooting for a reenactment of the beheading of Mary, Queen of Scots an instruction of to step up to the block in Marys costume was given to the actor. In that scene when the executioner came with the axe above his head, the camera was stopped, he told all the actors to freeze, and instructed the person playing Mary to go off the set. Then the trick was replacement of the dummy in Marys place instead of the actor. Then the next shot was the axe coming down to cut the head of the dummy by the executioner. Suchà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ techniques would remain at the heart of special effects production for the next century (Rickitt). Special effects technology was grown and reconstructed by the motion pictures company in the period of the 1920s and 1930s. Most of the effects techniques were created and improvised the methods of illusions from the background of the theaters like ghosts made up of papers and still photography like as double exposure and matte compositing. The idea was to use the painted backgrounds as the projections and to replace them with the moving pictures. In those times they used to create faces with life casting with the help of the usual mask making. They used to create awesome masks which would fit the actor perfectly. After the science of materialization improved and that gave more depth for horror film mask making. The greatest evolution for the special effects was the amazing success of the science fiction and fantasy films in 1977.The film Star Wars created by George Lucass unlashed an era of fantasy films with expensive and awesome special effects. That times special effects supervisor was John Dykstra, A.S.C.He and his crew did many improvements in technology. For the movies needs they created a motion controlled camera rig named as Dykstraflex. It created the wonders at that time as repetition of the motion which drastically enhanced the compositing the matte. The film images went through the process of the degradation by the use of other innovative techniques: For the widescreen images photography that to horizontal with the stock they used the cameras named Vista vision on that rig .They used the more length of the film per frame rate and for the compositing part they used thin films with emulsions. In the same year, the movie named Close Encounters of the Third Kind creation of Steven Spielberg burst out with amazing special effects. Those were the creation of veteran Douglas Trumbull. They developed their own motion control rig system. They also introduced the term lens flare which is intentional and created by the reflection of light in the camera lenses. That was intentionally done to create the shapes of the flying saucers. The main reason for the investment in the special effects was the grand success of these films. That created so much buzz turned into opportunities for the special effects studios and the birth of the computer graphics. As the years passed the film industry has grown with too many technologies mainly the digital techniques because of which we are now enable to realize the difference between the special effects and visual effects. The visual effects mean the one which are created during the process of the post production digitally. The special effect means those are created with the help of the cameras mechanically on the sets while shooting. Methodology This dissertation researches the integration of motion control techniques in the film industry. As for the artefact itself, conclusions drawn from the research will provide guidance as well as technical knowledge. The information acquired from the interviews of industry active personnel in areas of motion control will create the basis of the shots. Each shot will have an in depth description of its particular approach and reasoning, as well as problems and techniques used to achieve a solid track. These approaches evaluate and support the information that has been derived from both primary and secondary research. Primary Research In order to receive relevant, accurate and up to date information, the primary research for the evaluation and interpretation of the research questions was based on contacts and interviews with industry professionals. These interviews were conducted in different manners according to the flexibility and time of these sources. These included email questionings, telephone conversations. Although the question order and wording may vary, all interviews contain similar areas of focus and question principles. The following individuals where included in the questioning: 1. Mr. Ramdas A. Dale (General Manager Productions, Amtek Engineers PVT LTD.) 2. Mr. Rahul S. Sharma ( The questions asked were specifically designed to not only aid with specific techniques needed to produce an artifact, but also to highlight any problem areas that might be encountered during use of motion control rig in a professional environment. The main area of research discussed in the introduction of this paper still stands and the key investigation into The integration of motion control system in the film industry remains. Evaluating Primary research The primary research conducted by these questions was categorized into 6 subject areas. This approach was necessary in order to structure the information received for either secondary research approaches, or technique evaluation. The main headings of the primary research evolutions are: 1. The term Motion Control 2. Motion Control for VFX 3. The work of a motion control rig 4. Tricks and problems 5. The Importance of Motion Control to the Film Industry 6. The future of Motion Control Secondary Research The secondary research involves the assessment of motion control literature in order to support the primary research on a more technical level. The main methodology and reasoning for this research, is to show a good understanding of some subject areas discussed in the primary research, as well as how to use the motion control rig for low budget films. This will further aid in the understanding and problem solving. The technique of motion control is there since countable years but now is the time when this technology can be available in a affordable cost with which at least we can I mean low budget film makers can think of using it as a great tool for the shoot and experiment thoroughly. Earlier days the cost of a completely-featured computerized animation camera was up to Rs.90000000. Now a days the Motion control system is available for under Rs.540000.For shooting this type of work if you hire a camera it costs around Rs.3500 per hour and more and if you compare that with above price can consider as 270 hours of shoot with motion control. If you compare the shots per hour with motion control you can shoot 45 minutes of movie as the film camera will shoot 10-12 seconds of film in an hour. The motion control systems require the test shoots so if you count the final shooting output will be around 25 minutes. This is the reason you can think of getting your motion control rig which can pay for it in a comparatively less time. That has other side advantage of experimenting more on your own ideas for more time. The main advantage of using this technology is you can own less priced system and can get direct and great entry into more comprehensive and awesome field of TV and media. That too is a best opportunity to low-budget filmmakers who can improvise new and unique techniques. Newcomers can make most use of the camera productively and they save money for the studio who wants get a break in this industry. There are two options which are available for the shooting of the films. One is Cameraman and the other is motion control rig. Everyone one of them consists of the parts namely: the system, the added electronic devices to control the movement by the motors and computer softwares, the person controls the motors with the help of the systems to get the special effects. Each option uses the name of the brand and computer systems to get control over the movement of the axes, motion paths. Usually a cameraman will use the number of action will be and he uses a computer. In The motion control rig it consists of 3 or 6 or more axes to create the motion and it uses the computer systems as IBM or Apple. The package of the motion control rig and computer with which it can control 6 axes and computer software costs almost Rs.540000. The package of the Cameraman and computer system and motion along the 6 axes and computer software at the most about Rs.440000. The computer software package which the cameraman uses has more features like the streak mode along with fitting of curve. The other thing is the electronic devises he uses are made up of very simple design so the advantage is it has less maintenance. The studios with big budgets can be more comfortable and reliable with motion control rigs if they have a strong history of developing the large motion control systems and to work with them. Future Work My research will primarily concern itself with translating physical camera action with motion control rig in an extraordinary way. The functionality and usefulness of the motion control can be greatly expanded in the future. Opportunities for future work could include developing a real-time depth of field preview that would allow for realistic focal length changes to be made using the motion control system camera, adding an additional level of intuitive control to motion of camera. Reprogramming other controls of the motion control to make it more self-sufficient. Scope and limitations Results I got an approach to that how can I use the motion control system for the low budget movies. That is possible if I can get a good configured personal computer and make the motion control rig by myself. To build a motion control rig you have to have the sound knowledge of the different parts of engineering such as electrical, computers and mechanical engineering and the vast effects. If you cant do it on your own you may get help from your engineer friends who might be interested in all this stuff. Motion control creates too many visual illusions which are extraordinary and amazing which may be we can create by the duplication of the images formed in the computer systems. At the moment the motion control system is quite affordable but it will be vast in the future. In fact as soon as the less priced motion control systems will get evolved the main advantage will be for the new film makers to emerge as great as possible with the amazing special effects treatment which will let the audience and viewers to get entry into to the next world of magic created by you. Conclusion Over the course of this di

Technology - NEXRAD Radar :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

NEXRAD Radar    In the 1950's, the government appropriated money for the building of  Ã‚  Ã‚   weather radar (also known as WSR-57) stations at strategic locations,  Ã‚   usually airports, all across the U.S. Those performed well for the era in which they were used. In the 1990's, new technology was updating  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   everything except weather radar. While Pentium-run computers were plotting scientist's data on color monitors, meteorologists were guessing the movement of thunderstorms on monochrome screens. Because the radar needed to be updated, the Federal Airline Administration and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration pulled together money to create a better radar system. This new radar was called NEXRAD (Next Generation Weather Radar) or WSR-88D. Because of this change in technology, more aspects of the weather can be seen and analyzed that in turn save lives. NEXRAD technology is amazing. It can show the motion of rain, sleet, hail and even dust or insects moving towards or away from the radar's antenna. It can detect strong changes in wind direction inside a thunderstorm that could indicate the beginning of tornadic activity. The WSR-57 could never do this. The 88D can track precipitation totals over various periods of time and locations and can track wind speed and direction at various altitudes. The new radar has improved sensitivity and resolution. It can make the invisible wind of a storm visible even if there is no precipitation present. The old radar never had these capabilities and also left 33% of all tornadoes unnoticed. Now that NEXRAD is in place, the percentage has dropped to 13% nationally. Also, offices with WSR-88D radar are issuing fewer severe thunderstorm and tornado warnings that turn out to be false alarms. In Norman, Oklahoma, the false alarm rate dropped from 80% in the 1980's to 18% in 1992 (Williams 43 -46). To understand how NEXRAD receives its images, it is important to know how NEXRAD works. First, it sends radio waves into the surrounding area. Once the radio waves hit something, they bounce back. If precipitation is moving towards the station, it increases the radio waves' frequency. If the wind is blowing precipitation away from the station, the frequency of reflected radio waves is lowered. Doppler radar (NEXRAD) detects these frequency changes and uses them to show wind and precipitation patterns (Williams 176-179). Technology - NEXRAD Radar :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers NEXRAD Radar    In the 1950's, the government appropriated money for the building of  Ã‚  Ã‚   weather radar (also known as WSR-57) stations at strategic locations,  Ã‚   usually airports, all across the U.S. Those performed well for the era in which they were used. In the 1990's, new technology was updating  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   everything except weather radar. While Pentium-run computers were plotting scientist's data on color monitors, meteorologists were guessing the movement of thunderstorms on monochrome screens. Because the radar needed to be updated, the Federal Airline Administration and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration pulled together money to create a better radar system. This new radar was called NEXRAD (Next Generation Weather Radar) or WSR-88D. Because of this change in technology, more aspects of the weather can be seen and analyzed that in turn save lives. NEXRAD technology is amazing. It can show the motion of rain, sleet, hail and even dust or insects moving towards or away from the radar's antenna. It can detect strong changes in wind direction inside a thunderstorm that could indicate the beginning of tornadic activity. The WSR-57 could never do this. The 88D can track precipitation totals over various periods of time and locations and can track wind speed and direction at various altitudes. The new radar has improved sensitivity and resolution. It can make the invisible wind of a storm visible even if there is no precipitation present. The old radar never had these capabilities and also left 33% of all tornadoes unnoticed. Now that NEXRAD is in place, the percentage has dropped to 13% nationally. Also, offices with WSR-88D radar are issuing fewer severe thunderstorm and tornado warnings that turn out to be false alarms. In Norman, Oklahoma, the false alarm rate dropped from 80% in the 1980's to 18% in 1992 (Williams 43 -46). To understand how NEXRAD receives its images, it is important to know how NEXRAD works. First, it sends radio waves into the surrounding area. Once the radio waves hit something, they bounce back. If precipitation is moving towards the station, it increases the radio waves' frequency. If the wind is blowing precipitation away from the station, the frequency of reflected radio waves is lowered. Doppler radar (NEXRAD) detects these frequency changes and uses them to show wind and precipitation patterns (Williams 176-179).

Why New Zealand?

New Zealand is rated as one of the best places to study, work and live. The innate support for high tech industries, ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) thrive under the ecosystem as setup by the government. New Zealand also comes with a great ecosystem for the tourism and adventure sports industries. The country boasts of having some of the finest culinary masters, hospitality experts and extreme sports adrenaline junkies. Whether you are looking for a job as a fresher or as an experienced professional (with the required accreditation), New Zealand provides a plethora of options. New Zealand is one of the safest countries to explore yourself with a diverse international population that is a part of a very vibrant multi-cultural society. You can review an archive of student experiences in New Zealand over here, on the New Zealand Government website, One of the most important aspects of becoming an international student, is the â€Å"Student Experience†. As a part of our education system, Indian students are generally expected to forgo most extra-curricular activities and vacations in the pursuit of staying ahead. However, in New Zealand, as a part of your student experience, you will be encouraged to participate in local events, take part in cultural sports activities like Rugby, go on a break to some of the most serene beaches in the entire world. Who doesn't want to go surfing while getting their Masters done right?How to select the right University in New Zealand?Here's a list of the best ranked universities –University of Auckland: This is New Zealand's largest and most comprehensive university with 40,000 + students, researchers and faculty. Whether you are looking for the latest courses on emerging technologies like Machine Learning, Artificial Intelligence, Blockchain, CRISPR Genetics, this University has go t you covered.University of Otago: University of Otago comes with a rich cultural history of being NZ's oldest and one of the most predominant universities. A 150 year old history with a groundbreaking alumni circle, University of Otago offers a unique experience like no other.University of Canterbury: University of Canterbury boasts of some of the world's best research programs for post graduates. Compounded with a very relaxed policy on Scholarships and an acute focus on placements and job fairs, University of Canterbury sits at the top of our list.University of Victoria: University of Victoria focuses on creative thinking providing extraordinary environment to every student with fantastic exposure. University of Victoria also offers the world's first indigenous law degree.Massey University: Massey University has campuses in Auckland, Wellington, Manavatu, offers 67 undergraduate major, 89 programs and 1148 staffs.The list above is not exhaustive, instead, it is to give you a tast e of how an education in New Zealand could possibly change your life. Our admissions counselors are tied up with some of the best Universities in this country and ease of acceptance is purely on your ability to generate merit. There's a cornucopia of options when it comes to Universities here, from schools specializing in Medicine and Pharmaceutical research to Financial Engineering and Economic research, to Artificial Intelligence and Core Computer Science, Veterinary, Food Technology, NZ comes with a set of some of the world's best universities, faculties, and thus students. The question to be asked is, what would you like to make yourself into? With a widespread variety of options available for students to specialize themselves into the right industry, we advise you not to go with the social media trend or your neighbor's suggestions, we encourage you to speak to us and people working in the industry, within NZ, so that you get the best expert opinion about these crucial steps. Remember, this is a decision that could potentially transform your life, so please make sure you begin your decision making process from the right place at Manage My Education. Some important links to get you started :www.mmenow.com – Talk to us to get started with a structured approach to selecting your overseas education, to ensure a low rejection rate and a high scholarship rate.https://www.studyinnewzealand.govt.nz/live-work/ – Learn more about how to convert your life as a student into a full time professional in NZ.https://www.immigration.govt.nz/new-zealand-visas – Contains a great tool for you to know about Skill Shortage and how you could possibly get a permanent residence in NZhttps://www.studyinnewzealand.govt.nz/in/study-options/universities/ – Browse through more of the world class universities in NZ. Dear Reader,The Universities in NZ are rated to be the top 3% in the world. It is only logical that your profile, application and merits must be within the same caliber. For years, we at Manage My Education have helped students position their profiles for Universities all across the globe. It is our honest advice to you that, you contact us and avail our services to exponentially increase your chances to secure a great education and future in NZ. We encourage you to speak to our counsellors to get the right information before making a decision to move forward.

Mitigation of Earthquakes

The location of Kobe town played a great role on the magnitude of the damage caused by the earth quake that occurred in the town in 1995. The damage was far much as compared to the damage caused in the Northridge earthquake in 1994 as much as the magnitudes of the quakes were the same. Kobe town is on a narrow strip, where we have a narrow transportation corridor that was severely impaired due to the collapse of the elevated roads and railways and this caused dislocation of public and commercial traffic.There was evidence of ground failure including disruption of the road pavement, the subsiding of pavement around manholes and ejection of silt soils. The only transportation link became the ground level roads and this brought about congestion that impeded emergency response and recovery. There were large deformations in road pavements and also of the ground near buildings foundations in the district of Sannomiya of Kobe.The deformations were in the order of tens of centimeters and thi s could have been the likely cause of the damages that included tilting of the building or collapse of the entire structures that were experienced in many multistory buildings that occurred in Kobe especially in the down town area. The time of occurrence of the quake also served to increase the people who died. The quake occurred at 5:46 a. m. , the time which found many of the resident asleep or just beginning their morning routines. There were also so many old wood-frame houses with heavy clay tiles that collapsed causing many deaths.There was also the ignition of fires that followed immediately after the collapse of the structures. The fires could not be extinguished on time to avert more death because of the hindrance caused by the failure of the water supply system and the disruption in the traffic system. These did not happen in the case of the 1994 Northridge earthquake as all the fault rupture occurred at depth that were greater than 10km, and many of the multistory building s in San Fernando Valley were at least 20km away from the fault rupture that was closest (Paul, 1995).The Northridge earth quake also occurred at the time when there were no people occupying the building that were affected. These include a stadium that collapsed but there were no people in it at that early morning hours that the quake occurred. There was also the report of multi storey commercial buildings collapsing but were also not occupied during the time of collapse. In this town there was also incidence of fire eruption due to the breaking of the commercial gas pipe system, though this did not measure to what occurred at Kobe.There was also the collapse of the wood structure but the number was not as big as the one experienced at Kobe. There were few such structures in this town as compared to the large number in the Kobe case. The design aspect of the structures also averted the occurrence of more death as seen from none collapsing of school buildings which are reinforced aga inst earth quakes. Components to include in mitigation strategy a) Improve risk assessments. Risk assessment should be done to find out the chances that earth quake are likely to occur in a certain place and the frequency of such an occurrence and the severity determined.Such information should be combined with the inventory of the structures that are in existence, and are likely to be affected by such disaster accompanied by the fragility data. The fragility data estimates the degree of damage that various types of structure will experience, for example, the type of damage likely to be experienced by unreinforced masonry building which is in earthquake prone area. These risk assessments are very important in increasing public awareness about the threat posed by the natural disaster. b)Implementation of mitigation measures.Land use plan can help the communities reduce significantly on losses that are brought about by natural disasters like earth quakes by adoption of land use plans that aim at avoiding the hazards while taking care of the environment and other goals. There is however no willingness of local government to adopt land use measures to protect against hazards unless a direction is received from a higher level government. There should be accurate identification of the disaster affected areas though the mapping of the hazard zones could be very expensive for some municipalities.Earth quake disaster can also be reduced substantially by improving the building codes. The code will guide the standard of buildings that are allowed (to be built) in certain areas and the rehabilitation of already existing structures. The life safety of buildings is currently being set by building codes. The maintenance of the functionality of the structures also is a very important aspect and becomes very critical in certain class of structures. For example in the US there was establishment of seismic safety standards for federally funded new construction by the federal gov ernment.This has the mandate of addressing seismic safety standards of the buildings that are already in existence and are either owned or leased. About half of 30000 communities in US have not adapted any building code and the effectiveness of the building codes is also subject to reinforcement by the relevant authority (Science, 1999). This requires an ongoing inspection program and it has been noted that many communities lack the required number of inspectors that are required to perform the job efficiently.c) Improve technologies that support warnings and the dissemination of, and response to, warnings. A good mitigation strategy should address this issue as one of the component of the mitigation strategies. Warnings are expected to be time specific, show location of the expected disaster and the severity of the expected events. The uncertainty accompanied by the events should also be stated in the manner that will allow the taking of action to ensure the survival of people and the protection of institutions and property.There are some warnings that are developed in form of maps even before a disaster occurs in an area. These could also include the posting of signs in the areas or having a regulation that requires that real estate agents inform potential property owners the nature of disaster the area is prone to. d) Improve the basis for natural disaster insurance. Improvement of the basis of natural disaster insurance is an important component that should be included in the mitigation strategy.There should be reward for individuals that invest in hazard-reduction measures and this should be before and after the disaster. Individuals that are insured are to be awarded lower premiums for adopting mitigation measures before disasters such as the potential loses are considerably reduced. The insurance companies have the freedom of refusing to provide coverage unless the policyholder has agreed to undertake certain prospective measures that can lower the pote ntial losses. REFERENCES Collins, Larry (2000).Earthquakes: Lessons from the Past, Part 1. Fire Engineering, 153(6). Retrieved August 27, 2008 from http://search. ebscohost. com Collins, Larry (2000). Earthquakes: Lessons from the Past, Part 2. Fire Engineering, 153(7). Retrieved August 27, 2008 from http://search. ebscohost. com Comerio, Mary (2004). Public policy for reducing earthquake risks: a US perspective. Building Research & Information, 32(5). Retrieved August 27, 2008 from http://search. ebscohost. com Emergency Management Institute.(2004). Introduction to Mitigation, Lesson 4. Retrieved February 8, 2004, from http://training. fema. gov/EMIWeb/IS/is393A. asp Paul S. ( February, 7 1995) Kobe Earthquake: An Urban Disaster Eos, 76( 6), 49-51. Retrieved March 30 2009, from http://www. agu. org/sci_soc/kobe. html Science (18 June 1999). Mitigation Emerges as Major Strategy for Reducing Losses Caused by Natural Disasters:284(5422). 1943-1947 Retrieved March 30 2009, from http:// www. sciencemag. org/cgi/content/full/284/5422/1943

Free Essays on Reaching The Heights

In my life, â€Å"reaching the heights† has meant keeping myself motivated, always having my priorities in order, and most importantly remaining strong in my faith. For me, staying motivated is easy as long as I set long term and short term goals for myself. To be able to do this I have to keep thinking about what it is that I want to make out of my life, and I think this has helped me find who I really am. My religion is undoubtedly my greatest influence in being successful. In my opinion success is not limited to how well you are at doing something or how prosperous your life is. Success is being the best person you personally can be. Being a strong catholic has been the basis of me becoming the best I can be. It has kept my morals strong and has reminded me of what is truly most important in life. Although I believe that there is more to a person than their scholastic achievement, I regard scholastics as a vital part in success. This may or may not be true for everyone, but for me it certainly is. It would be impossible for me to become the person I want to be if I did not take my grades seriously. I am not one of those people who are inherently smart. To get the grades I want, I have to put a great amount of effort into learning. This isn’t all together a bad thing for me because I honestly do enjoy learning, although at times it can be frustrating when things don’t naturally come to me as they seem to for others. Fortunately, I don’t allow this to drag me down. Instead it makes me want to try even harder. Another example of me living a life of Christian principle would be service. When I give of myself to others through service I feel myself gaining knowledge of what is important. In some instances it also makes me realize how lucky I am. A few things that I am in involved in are volunteering at the hospital, helping out at Sunday school, doing various works of service through Key Club, and ministering to my sch... Free Essays on Reaching The Heights Free Essays on Reaching The Heights In my life, â€Å"reaching the heights† has meant keeping myself motivated, always having my priorities in order, and most importantly remaining strong in my faith. For me, staying motivated is easy as long as I set long term and short term goals for myself. To be able to do this I have to keep thinking about what it is that I want to make out of my life, and I think this has helped me find who I really am. My religion is undoubtedly my greatest influence in being successful. In my opinion success is not limited to how well you are at doing something or how prosperous your life is. Success is being the best person you personally can be. Being a strong catholic has been the basis of me becoming the best I can be. It has kept my morals strong and has reminded me of what is truly most important in life. Although I believe that there is more to a person than their scholastic achievement, I regard scholastics as a vital part in success. This may or may not be true for everyone, but for me it certainly is. It would be impossible for me to become the person I want to be if I did not take my grades seriously. I am not one of those people who are inherently smart. To get the grades I want, I have to put a great amount of effort into learning. This isn’t all together a bad thing for me because I honestly do enjoy learning, although at times it can be frustrating when things don’t naturally come to me as they seem to for others. Fortunately, I don’t allow this to drag me down. Instead it makes me want to try even harder. Another example of me living a life of Christian principle would be service. When I give of myself to others through service I feel myself gaining knowledge of what is important. In some instances it also makes me realize how lucky I am. A few things that I am in involved in are volunteering at the hospital, helping out at Sunday school, doing various works of service through Key Club, and ministering to my sch...

From Communism to Democracy essays

From Communism to Democracy essays Gradualism is naturally the most feasible approach to any situation. Since the fall of the iron curtain, these two Communist power houses have chose to move towards democracy. China has chosen to take the natural, more gradual approach to democracy where as Russia has chosen the fast-paced, more dangerous approach. These two nations have chosen to change their economies from a collectivized command one to a market oriented one in order to increase the ezdard of living in their countries. As we have seen in recent years, China is booming and becoming more and more successful, while Russia seems like it is regressing back to parochial ways. It is impossible to compare anything but Russia and China's approaches to change, and the results that incurred. The two nations have vastly different economies and to compare one economy to another would be illogical. China and Russia's approach to change are vastly different, almost like night and day. China's political and economic policy has always been to do things gradually. Whereas Russia believed in going through the necessary changes quickly, so that the hardship would in turn pass just as quickly. In the implementation of their policies, we have seen that China's approach has led to a 29% of growth in their industrial field. But in comparison, Russia only yielded 15% with their approach. But one must keep in mind that China has more industrial sectors than does Russia, so their job in improving industry is notably easier than Russia's feat in developing an Politically, the two nations have the same policies that they held in their economies. China believes in gradually letting the people have more access to political freedom. And again, Russia's policy has been to flood them all at once with these new found freedoms. Unfortunately Russia's policy hasn't been the most ...

11 incredible ways to satisfy a womans breasts

11 incredible ways to satisfy a woman's breasts Of course, the first thing many people notice about a woman after her smile and her eyes are her breasts. There is nothing to be ashamed of because we all know what it is. We spend a lot of time checking them in broad daylight, but we cannot satisfy them and give them the attention they deserve when the lights go out. Men usually walk between the legs of a woman as they enjoy more and ignore the breasts. According to sexologists, a womans breasts are an area of great pleasure, but for men, she is somewhat misunderstood because they have no breasts. Most of the information we gather about breasts comes from media and pornography. Also, read the logical reasons why men love breasts and that makes sense. We bring you 11 extraordinary ways to satisfy a womans breasts. The understanding of all breasts is not the same The fact that it satisfies one partner in the past does not mean that the same will be enough for your next partner. Many women want breast stimulation in the form of soft, sweet jokes, and some want it rough and curly. You have to understand how to satisfy your wife first. Start slowly, until you know what you like Do not catch it the way you started the previous game, let your fingers gently touch the skin around the nipples and surrounding areas of the breasts as you inhale warm air over them. Be a ridicule Try to kiss her breast, but ignore her nipples for a few minutes and always look at her face to gauge her reaction, it helps her to understand how much she loves and how much she loves her breasts more than you. Tease 2 Breathe it seductively, but do not make physical contact before your body twists. This may require some self-control, but the accumulation is worth it if you feel a tingling sensation when she has an orgasm. Behind Try to cut your breasts from behind while kissing your neck, gently caress your fingers and put your hand across your chest for more excitement. To satisfy it more, you can gently press the nipple with your index finger and massage it in a circular motion until it hardens. Communicate without disturbing the mood During sex, ask your wife how she feels, plays and plays with her breasts or does what she likes. This sounds uncomfortable, but this communication will benefit both and make the sexual act more enjoyable Also, read 25 strangely satisfying pictures on the internet that will appeal to all perfectionists! Let her be the teacher Give her the power to be her teacher during sex. Ask her to keep her breasts with what she expects of you, it will make her more erotic and enjoyable. Grab a Doggystyle from the back or put your own hands on her breasts when she climbs on you so she can show you how she likes to be touched. Pay attention to your reactions and your breathing Concentrate on what happens to the rest of the body, your breathing, your moans, your redness, but never ignore the breasts, for sexual arousal causes more blood flow to the breasts and often causes breast tissue. Swelling up to 25%, your skin on the breasts will turn red and the areolas will darken, indicating that they are having fun. If she wants to play more abruptly, she relaxes something A woman likes to have some sort of control over her chest, making her a bit rough and perverted, making her sexier. You can use nipple clips or use your teeth, a little pressure can make it warmer for you. Use different sensations Try to make it risky by using a combination of hot and cold keys that can be as exciting as pliers like ice cubes, silk and lace, which can be super hot for many women and really fun. Praise be the woman If you really love her breasts, tell her why worship is the strongest aphrodisiac and that it helps to increase her mood, libido and sexual response. Gently seducing a woman with the right touch will satisfy her and warm things up in the room faster, and surely turn good sex into good sex.

Sex as Crime Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Sex as Crime - Essay Example Similarly, sex as crime becomes highly obvious in a critical analysis of rape which is another type of sexual assault against females and it is more regular a practice in the modern society. Therefore, a reflective analysis of rape and domestic violence in relation to sex as crime assumes several themes and values such as humanist, minimalist, tolerant, responsible, and pro-feminist. Such an analysis also includes an investigation of the advantages and disadvantages of legislation and government control in the areas of rape and sexual violence. Significantly, "it remains the case that 'sex crime' (defined in its broadest sense to include issues such as soliciting, violence against sex workers, rape in war, internet grooming) is often considered to be less important, both legally and academically, than issues such as policing, community safety, white-collar crime and imprisonment. It is also fair to say that, given the current backlash against feminism, these issues are further margi nalised. Critical study in this area challenges both the workings of the criminal justice system and definitions of 'traditional' criminology." (Letherby, 5) Therefore, a pro-feminist and gender-sensitive approach to these issues highlights the problems with the stereotypical definitions of genderless 'sex crime'. A reflective analysis of rape and domestic violence in the contemporary world emphasises that the concept of 'sex as crime' is an essential one which covers several areas of criminal justice system and social issues. The concept of 'sex as crime' and rape and domestic violence The concept of 'sex as crime' in relation to rape and domestic violence assumes prominent role in the criminal justice system as well as policy matter. Significantly, rape and domestic violence against women became one of the most crucial policy priorities in the UK by the year 2000 as a result of the tree-decades long feminist campaigning. Contemporary investigations and researches reveal that the issues of rape and domestic violence have increased tremendously and there is poor handling of these issues in the criminal justice system. In fact, there is no other crime than rape which is handled more defectively by the criminal justice system and it is also under-reported crime. Whereas the vast majority of rape victims do not report the sexual attacks on them, it is also significant that the prosecution rate of rape cases is also much lower than other serious crimes. In fact, rape is a special type of sex crime where the case of the victim is much more serious than what is commonly p erceived. "As a crime, rape is in a class by itself; in the experience of the crime, in people's response to the victim and in the law enforcement skills needed to investigate and prosecute the crime Unlike victims of any other crime, rape victims are often subject to concerted ostracizing, disbelief, and blame. Hostilities against the victim quickly gather steam. These hostilities are frequently bolstered by powerful (male dominated) institutions such as schools, churches, businesses, families, and authorities." (Sex Crimes: Police Response and Investigation) Therefore, the issue of

Freedom of speech and expression Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Freedom of speech and expression - Essay Example For the purpose of our essay we will mainly discuss two famous cases: Ozzy Osbourne's song "Suicide Solution"1 and Ice-T's "Cop Killer"2. We will focus on the aspects of the songs that caused such an outrage and we will try to replace the song in the cultural context to explain and understand their link with the freedom of speech and expression issue. In 1981 was released Ozzy Osbourne's first solo album "Blizzard of Ozz". This album included a song called Suicide Solution. The song was originally aimed to talk about alcohol as a deadly substance. The song was written by Osbourne after his friend Bon Scott, lead-singer of AC/DC, had died as a result of alcohol abuse. The word Solution should be understood as mixture and not as answer as we will see later. On October 26, 1984, during the night, John McCollum shot himself in the head with a .22 caliber handgun. He was 19 years old. It was reported that when he entered the room, the coroner found headphones on John's head. He had been listening for most of the evening to Ozzy Osbourne's albums "Diary of a madman" and "Blizzard of Ozz" in the living room. He then went in his bedroom, listened to Osbourne's album "Speak of the devil" and shot himself". The fo The following year, in October John's parents filed suit against Ozzy Osbourne and his record company CBS on charges of negligence, products liability and intentional misconduct, claiming that Osbourne's song had incited their son to commit suicide. The case was first dismissed on August 7, 1986, by The Superior Court of Los Angeles County. The McCollums appealed arguing that Osbourne's songs were containing themes such as satanic worshiping and death. They precisely targeted the song Suicide Solution because of his lyrics "suicide is the only out" and of supposedly masked lyrics not printed in the album as "why try, why try, get the gun and try it, shoot, shoot, shoot" The music was constitutionally protected as decided by the Court of Appeals which ruled that Osbourne's music could not be seen as a cause of the suicide. The first step of this decision was to declare that the music was protected by the First Amendment but then consider that freedom of speech is not absolute. An investigation was conducted by the court to explore the possibilities of Osbourne's music encouraging John McCollum's suicide. In regards of the Brandenburg test, the Court decided that Osbourne's music could not be accountable for the decision taken by McCollum. It is interesting to recall the declaration of the Court of Appeals: "freedom of speech is not absolute". When one shall consider that freedom of speech and expression must be considered as the possibility to declare anyone of his feelings, we will have to precise this interpretation. Alexis de Tocqueville, the philosopher, in "Democracy in America"3 explained that when a person expresses an opinion which may seem unpopular, he may be subjected to the rejection of his community. He qualifies freedom of speech as a civil liberty rather then a fundamental liberty. In Osbourne's case, we are directly confronted to that type of differentiation. He and his song are rejected because they do not fit with the common thoughts of what music -

College Mathematics I Speech or Presentation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

College Mathematics I - Speech or Presentation Example What is Melanie’s net worth? 130. Population of Mexico: In 2006, the population of Mexico was 107.4 million. If Mexico’s population continues to grow at an annual rate of 1.43%, then the population in 2020 will be (107.4) (1.0143)14 million. 100. Forensics: A forensic scientist uses the expression 72.6 + 2.5T to estimate the height in centimetres of a female with a tibia of length T cms. If a female skeleton has a tibia of length 32.4 cm, then what was the height of the person? Find the length of your tibia in cms, and use the expression in this exercise to estimate your height. 104. Crop Circles: The expression ï  °r2 gives the area of a circle with radius r. How many square meters of wheat were destroyed when an alien ship made a crop circle of diameter 25 m in the wheat field at the Southwind Ranch? Round to the nearest 10th. Find ï  ° on your calculator. 124. Marriage penalty eliminated: The value of the expression 4220 + 0.25 (x – 30,650) is the 2006 federal income tax for a single tax payer with a taxable income of x dollars, where x is over $30,650 but not over $74,200. 96. World Grain Demand: Freeport McMoRan projects that in 2010 world grain supply will be 1.8 trillion metric tonnes and the supply will be only (3/4) of the world grain demand. What will world grain demand be in 2010? 94. Raising Rabbits: Before Roland sold two female rabbits, half of his rabbits were female. After the sale, only one third of his rabbits were female. If x represents the original number of rabbits, then gives the child’s dosage d, where D is the adult dosage and a is the age of the child in years. If adult dosage of a drug is 600 mgs and a doctor uses this formula to determine that a child’s dosage is 200 mgs, then how old is the child? 18. High Risk Funds: Of the $50,000 that Natasha pocketed on her last real estate deal, $20,000 went to charity. She invested part of the remainder in Dreyfus New Leaders Fund with an

Eaarth by Bill McKibben - A New Devastated Planet Essay

Eaarth by Bill McKibben - A New Devastated Planet - Essay Example It should be noted that the author has a particular reason for adding another ‘a’ in the spelling, i.e. he considers that humans are not living on the planet Earth. Humans have over-populated the planet with increased global warming and testing nuclear bombs on earth. It is the pollution and industrial sweep that have actually made the frozen tips of mountains to melt down, causing increased sea levels leading to floods. There are many other reasons behind the global warming that have actually led the author to think of a title which has an additional ‘a’. (McKibben). The philosophy behind the entitlement of the book is not an illusion. The need of the hour is to address the climate change that is taking place with fast pace. It should be noted that Bill McKibben has also noted the fact in his work that it is already too late to make change, because the greatest damage that is likely to place is already underway. Humans have avoided the consequences a great deal, which is resulted in the present situation (McKibben). Bill McKibben has already been writing for many newspapers including The New York Times and Mother Jones etc. The subject matter of his writing has always been environment and nature. His first book was published in 1989 which remarkably educated people about climate change and its basics. His first book about climate change was more like an encyclopedia that was translated in many languages and published throughout the world. Despite the renounce of his book, the attitude towards climate change by major countries of the world remains avoidable. In other words it could be said that the book written on the subject of environment has been a part of encyclopedia but none actually tried to act on it (McKibben). It seems that Bill McKibben blames the bigger industries for the oil spills and ruining the marine life. There are many instances of his writing pieces that show anguish concern against the multinational organizations. According to his book Eaarth, it was noted that there are many oil companies that have marked increased profits within the time period of three years. This shows that companies are more interested to make maximum profits without having any considerations of the environment (McKibben). The philosophy of Bill McKibben is not any different than that of other environmentalists, such as John Muir and Edward Abby, but the approach is far effective than others. If we compare the written pieces of John Muir and Bill McKibben, it comes to understanding that John has rather discussed the beautiful scenarios of the planet E,arth whereas Bill McKibben shows the changing aspects of the environment that will not let the beautiful scenarios to remain seeable for the future generations (Muir). Readers of the essays by John Muir would surely understand the beauty of different parts of the world. The book takes the readers to the adventurous and beautiful ride to the world. But it should be noted tha t the climate change taking place in the world is deadly and can cause a number of fatalities such as volcanoes, tsunami, hurricanes and spread of deadly diseases which have already increased its toll (Muir). The philosophy of Bill McKibben is not just based upon writing implications but also practical intervening. Bill

Democracy and the foreigner Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Democracy and the foreigner - Essay Example The Social Contract Or Principles of Political Right (1762) is one of the most influential works of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in which the philosopher brilliantly theorised about social contracts and political order. Similarly to John Locke, Rousseau believed that a government could be legitimate only in case if it had been sanctioned by the people acting as the sovereign. The 'general will' concept and other novel ideas expressed by Rousseau in the Social Contract probably played a pivotal role in setting the stage for deep political reforms and revolutions which occurred in France and other European countries in the subsequent decades. The concept of 'general will' introduced by Rousseau in this work immediately generated intensive debate in Europe. The scientist suggested that without personal input from the people in determining 'general will' there can be no legitimate government. This concept involved criticism of the traditional notion that the King was appointed by God to legisl ate. Instead, Rousseau proposed his own vision of the legislative process and the legislator. Democracy is commonly considered as the best form of government these days. Contemporary scholars such as Robert Dahl, Anthony Arblaster, Benjamin Barber, Andrew Heywood and many others express various views on the nature of modern democracy. Consequently, there are several models of democracy described in works of these authors. According to Professor Robert Dahl, one of the most prominent political theorists of nowadays, modern democracy has four historical sources: the direct democracy in ancient Greece, the republicanism of Roman and Italian city-states in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, the theory and practice of representative government, and the idea of political equality (Dahl 1989). Political ideals and aims of the classical Athenian democracy were expressed by the outstanding Greek philosopher Aristotle in The Politics between 335 and 323 BC. Aristotle identifies liberty as one of the founding principles of the classical democratic constitution. The philosopher argues that liberty has two major aspects, namely: 1. Ruling and being ruled in turn; 2. Living as one chooses (Aristotle 1984) According to Professor David Held (1996), the Athenian democracy had the following institutional features. Firstly, assembly of citizens had sovereign power, that is, supreme authority, to engage in legislative and judicial functions. The citizenry as a whole formed the Assembly, which consists of each and every citizen of Athens. The Assembly met more than 40 times a year, and it had a quorum of 6,000 citizens. The Athenian concept of 'citizenship' entailed taking a share in legislative and judicial functions, participating directly in the affairs of the state. That is why the classical Greek democracy is called 'direct democracy' (DeTorre 1997). Modern democracy differs significantly from the initial forms of this political order. Experience accumulated over centuries of political history made many understand that democracy must be constantly watched and defended. Since the growth of population made it impossible to apply the same set of

College Mathematics I Speech or Presentation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

College Mathematics I - Speech or Presentation Example What is Melanie’s net worth? 130. Population of Mexico: In 2006, the population of Mexico was 107.4 million. If Mexico’s population continues to grow at an annual rate of 1.43%, then the population in 2020 will be (107.4) (1.0143)14 million. 100. Forensics: A forensic scientist uses the expression 72.6 + 2.5T to estimate the height in centimetres of a female with a tibia of length T cms. If a female skeleton has a tibia of length 32.4 cm, then what was the height of the person? Find the length of your tibia in cms, and use the expression in this exercise to estimate your height. 104. Crop Circles: The expression ï  °r2 gives the area of a circle with radius r. How many square meters of wheat were destroyed when an alien ship made a crop circle of diameter 25 m in the wheat field at the Southwind Ranch? Round to the nearest 10th. Find ï  ° on your calculator. 124. Marriage penalty eliminated: The value of the expression 4220 + 0.25 (x – 30,650) is the 2006 federal income tax for a single tax payer with a taxable income of x dollars, where x is over $30,650 but not over $74,200. 96. World Grain Demand: Freeport McMoRan projects that in 2010 world grain supply will be 1.8 trillion metric tonnes and the supply will be only (3/4) of the world grain demand. What will world grain demand be in 2010? 94. Raising Rabbits: Before Roland sold two female rabbits, half of his rabbits were female. After the sale, only one third of his rabbits were female. If x represents the original number of rabbits, then gives the child’s dosage d, where D is the adult dosage and a is the age of the child in years. If adult dosage of a drug is 600 mgs and a doctor uses this formula to determine that a child’s dosage is 200 mgs, then how old is the child? 18. High Risk Funds: Of the $50,000 that Natasha pocketed on her last real estate deal, $20,000 went to charity. She invested part of the remainder in Dreyfus New Leaders Fund with an

Democracy and the foreigner Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Democracy and the foreigner - Essay Example The Social Contract Or Principles of Political Right (1762) is one of the most influential works of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in which the philosopher brilliantly theorised about social contracts and political order. Similarly to John Locke, Rousseau believed that a government could be legitimate only in case if it had been sanctioned by the people acting as the sovereign. The 'general will' concept and other novel ideas expressed by Rousseau in the Social Contract probably played a pivotal role in setting the stage for deep political reforms and revolutions which occurred in France and other European countries in the subsequent decades. The concept of 'general will' introduced by Rousseau in this work immediately generated intensive debate in Europe. The scientist suggested that without personal input from the people in determining 'general will' there can be no legitimate government. This concept involved criticism of the traditional notion that the King was appointed by God to legisl ate. Instead, Rousseau proposed his own vision of the legislative process and the legislator. Democracy is commonly considered as the best form of government these days. Contemporary scholars such as Robert Dahl, Anthony Arblaster, Benjamin Barber, Andrew Heywood and many others express various views on the nature of modern democracy. Consequently, there are several models of democracy described in works of these authors. According to Professor Robert Dahl, one of the most prominent political theorists of nowadays, modern democracy has four historical sources: the direct democracy in ancient Greece, the republicanism of Roman and Italian city-states in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, the theory and practice of representative government, and the idea of political equality (Dahl 1989). Political ideals and aims of the classical Athenian democracy were expressed by the outstanding Greek philosopher Aristotle in The Politics between 335 and 323 BC. Aristotle identifies liberty as one of the founding principles of the classical democratic constitution. The philosopher argues that liberty has two major aspects, namely: 1. Ruling and being ruled in turn; 2. Living as one chooses (Aristotle 1984) According to Professor David Held (1996), the Athenian democracy had the following institutional features. Firstly, assembly of citizens had sovereign power, that is, supreme authority, to engage in legislative and judicial functions. The citizenry as a whole formed the Assembly, which consists of each and every citizen of Athens. The Assembly met more than 40 times a year, and it had a quorum of 6,000 citizens. The Athenian concept of 'citizenship' entailed taking a share in legislative and judicial functions, participating directly in the affairs of the state. That is why the classical Greek democracy is called 'direct democracy' (DeTorre 1997). Modern democracy differs significantly from the initial forms of this political order. Experience accumulated over centuries of political history made many understand that democracy must be constantly watched and defended. Since the growth of population made it impossible to apply the same set of

Computer aided design package Essay Example for Free

Computer aided design package Essay A company called Engineering ? Us have employed me to find out the cost, benefits and the drawbacks of upgrading from their current method of hand made technical drawing to using an up-to-date Computer Aided Design (CAD) package. This company designs and constructs office furniture to order; because of this work only begins on an item once the exact details of the item have been calculated and have the clients approval. The current method which is used to gather the information that the designers need to make the drawings for the office is to send over a person to measure the location where the item or items of furniture will be located and how they will get the item into the building. After this has happened and the measurements have been given to the designers the designers will draw the blueprints by pen and paper. After they have drawn the design they will send the blueprint via one of the companys employees to the client for him/her to look at and decide if it is what they wanted. If the client decided they liked the design the blueprint would be sent down to the workshop where they would start construction of the design. If the client didnt like the blueprint that the designers had made Engineering ? Us would find out from the client what was incorrect with the blueprints, then the designers would redesign the blueprints with the clients inputs in mind. After this it is shown to the client again to see if it is to their liking. The reason the company is upgrading to a CAD based system from their hand drawn method is that up until now they have only had to make items on a smaller scale with a lot of time allowed for each project. Currently they allow the designer to make the drawings on the A0 paper taking their time which would take a few months, then have it sent to the manufacturing department to be constructed. Now they have managed to negotiate a contract with another company who will require Engineering ? Us to make the items faster, this means that they will need the technical drawings drawn faster so they can construct the items sooner. To allow this to happen they have decided to change from their current system to a computer based system using a CAD package appropriate to their needs. Engineering ? Us is a small company; they have one office and a workshop which are situated in separate places. The office block is where the items are designed and the workshop is where they are constructed using the designs from the office block. To transport the drawings from the office block to the workshop they walk over from the office block to the workshop with them, the reason they do this rather than any other method is that the two locations are very close together. Engineering ? Us has ten people working in the workshop where they are constructing the designs that are made and they have two designers drawing the blueprints in the office. There are also seven people who take blueprints out to clients to make sure that they like the drawing before Engineering ? Us constructs the design. These five people also take orders and measurements of the areas where the clients want the items to be placed and deliver the items to the client using a company van. The company has three supervisors, one is in charge of the technical drawing department, one is in charge of the workshop and one is in charge of the five people who communicate directly with the clients. One manager is in charge of all three of the supervisors and then the director of Engineering ? Us is above him. In total this brings the number of employees working for Engineering ? Us to twenty and two of these twenty employees will be using the system I am to justify. The company has recently won a new contract from a client and now has to construct a lot more furniture over a shorter period of time. For the company to meet these demands they have decided to upgrade their workshop to use a CAM machine that will speed up construction. The CAM machine has already been chosen by the company and the training plus everything else that is required for the CAM machine to operate. Engineering ? Us only require me to analysis the designing part of the company and make this more efficient to keep up with the new contract they have acquired. Engineering ? Us wants me to come up with a system that will run a CAD package that I justify for the company to use. This system will have to output a file format compatible with the CAM machine so that they integrate with each other easily. The contract will provide the company with i 60,000 at the end of the year once all of the items have been constructed and delivered to the client. This will be paid in instalments at the end of each month of i5,000. This contract will also be renewed with the client providing that Engineering ? Us can adequately provide the items they required within the allotted time frame. The system that I have been asked to come up with will have two users; these two users are currently working with Engineering ? Us and they will need to be trained in using the new system as they have not had any training or experience with any CAD application. They also need to have the capability to back up their drawings daily so that if something did happen to their hard drive they wouldnt have lost everything. They also want all three computers linked up to their own network separate to any others that the company already have. It also needs to be connected to the internet so they can download updates for their CAD package as updates become available over the internet. The company has given me a budget of i 15,000 to come up with a costing to make or to buy two PCs capable of running a CAD package that I justify and anything else that is needed to run this application. With this budget I will also need to buy an A0 plotter, two graphics tablets, networking equipment and training for the employees on using the CAD package. P2 The company currently has two computers in their office block; these computers are very old and are only used for word processing for administration tasks. The current specification of their computers is shown in the table below: Component Specification Processor Intel Pentium 166 MHz (Random Access Memory) RAM 30MB Optical drive CD-ROM x8 speed Hard drive 9GB Modem 56K The computers they currently have cant be upgraded to use any of the new CAD packages because everything in the current computers would all need to be replaced to make it compatible with any new CAD packages. This would effectively mean making a new computer rather than upgrading it, so just constructing a new computer would be a more cost effective way of proceeding. For that reason it would be better to keep these computers for administration purposes they are currently being used for, this would allow the company to still use them and not have to throw them away as they do their current task perfectly. DeltaCAD, MiniCAD, TurboCAD and AutoCAD are four different CAD packages that I have found that could do the job required by Engineering ? Us. The reason I have chosen these four is because the CAM machine in the workshop will only accept . DWG files for reading and if the CAD package didnt output . DWG files it would not be able to integrate with the CAM machine. These files must be contained on a floppy disk as the CAM machine has only a floppy drive input and then it will read the data from it and construct to the specified design. I have chosen to further investigate three separate CAD packages out of the ones listed above; these three are DeltaCAD, TurboCAD and AutoCAD. The reason I have decided to investigate these further is that DeltaCAD is the cheapest, TurboCAD is the mid range and AutoCAD is the most expensive out of the packages. Using these three will give me a wide band of different costs for the different CAD applications which will allow me to come up with cheap systems, mid ranged and expensive an system for the company. This will help me not only stick to the budget I have been allocated but may also save the company money depending on the over all costs of the CAD package that is used. After finding out more on DeltaCAD, TurboCAD and AutoCAD I have found out that the latest versions of these three CAD packages are DeltaCAD 5. 0, TurboCAD 10 and AutoCAD 2005. DeltaCAD is made by a company called Midnight Software, TurboCAD is made by a company called IMSI and AutoCAD is made by a company called Autodesk, both IMSI and AutoCAD sell other products that are like CAD, but they will not be suitable for the tasks that Engineering ? Us require of it. Upon further investigation I have discovered one problem with TurboCAD that DeltaCAD and AutoCAD dont have is that the CAM machine might not read the files it outputs perfectly. TurboCAD 10 outputs a different type of file but they state that this type of file is perfectly compatible with any CAM machine that reads . DWG files. Although they say this I think that from past experiences there could be problems from time to time with this type of file on Engineering ? Uss CAM machine, when these problems arise it will slow the construction process down. P3/M2 I will have to either buy a new PC from a store or make the computers myself; whichever approach is adopted the hardware that will have to be in the machine will be the same and is listed below: Motherboard which will support all other hardware required for the computer   Video card to output a display on the monitor for the user to see what they are doing   CD-ROM drive to install the software applications which will be needed for the task the company requires of it   Floppy Drive to move the . DWG files to the CAM machine in the workshop to construct the items, this can also be very useful for fixing a broken computer or to help analyse its fault   Case for all of the components that will make up the computer to go into. RAM for the computer to open up applications and to keep data that is being used at the present times Hard drive to install the software applications on and store the CAD files created   Keyboard for the users to enter in alphanumeric data and other characters   Mouse or other pointing device for the user to move the curser on the screen   Processor to be able to process all of the data that needs to be processed   Processor heat sink to take heat off of the processor and disperse it into the air. Fans to keep the components inside the computer cool enough to work correctly, e. g. processor fan, case fans and video card fan   DVD/CD reader rewriter drive to back up the drawings that they produce during the day   Monitor for the user to view what they are doing while using the computer Other hardware that will be needed that is not part of the computer and is not needed to get the computer working, but will be required by the company to enable it to do all the work required is the A0 plotter and graphics tablets. An A0 sized plotter will be used to print off the CAD drawings on A0 paper and used to show the blueprints to the clients, they then decide if they like it or not from these blueprints. The reason that they will need to be printed out on A0 size paper is because due to the size of the items they are designing and the amount of information that needs to be shown to the clients it can only be easily displayed on an A0 sized piece of paper. One advantage of the system for the plotters is that there would only need to be one cheap plotter that prints off the drawings in low quality.

Chemical Synthesis and Analysis of Seaweed

Chemical Synthesis and Analysis of Seaweed Chapter 1 Literature review 2015 Introduction Marine-microalgae are normally termed as seaweed belonging to the primitive family of non-flowering plant known as thallophyta (Fig 1). The sea plant lacks the leaves, stem and roots of true plants. The body of the seaweed is called the thallus named after the thallophyta. The flattened leaf portion of the microalgae is called the blade and its function is to increase the photosynthesizing surface area. Seaweeds are attached to the bottom by a root-like structure called a holdfast. Seaweeds are autotrophic which grows in the intertidal and sub-tidal region of the sea. Seaweeds grow abundantly where rocks and coral are present as substratum (Marine Fisheries information Services October-November 1998; Kaliaperumal et al., 2004). Figure 1: Shows the general structure of seaweed ( Thallophyta)( Reproduced from http://dtc.pima.edu/blc/183/03_183/03_183answers.html). Seaweed may be classified into two categories namely phaephyceae (Brown) and Rhodophyceae (Red). Seaweeds contain different types of phycolloids such as alginate, carrageenan, agarose and agar agar. Seaweed is mainly used in Asia as food, fodders, fertilizer and also as drugs in the pharmaceutical industry for its therapeutics properties (Marine Fisheries information Services, October-November, 1998). 1.1 Brown seaweed (Phaephyceae) Brown seaweed is found in the family of seaweed which is called the phaephyceae. The brown seaweed composition varies according to the species, throughout the year and between different habitats. Brown seaweed is composed mainly of carbohydrate such as alginate, laminaran, mannitol, fucoidan and small traces of cellulose as shown in Table 1. (Fasahati et al., 2012) Table1. Brown seaweed composition Component Base design dry weight (%) Used in simulation dry weight (%) Ash 23.63 25.48 Algin 27.78 27.78 Laminaran 16.67 18.52 Mannitol 14.81 14.81 Fucoidan 3.7 Cellulose 6.6 Protein 7.41 7.41 1.2 Alginate Alginate is a major structural biopolymer found in cell wall and intercellular matrix which provides mechanical strength in brown seaweed. Seaweeds containing alginate are called alginophyte (Yabur et al., 2006). In the natural environment, alginate exists as a mixture of potassium, calcium and sodium salt (Gomez et al., 2009). 1.2.1 Structure of alginate The structure differs from species, age and from different part of seaweed. Alginate consists of two monomers and is linked to each other alternately in a linear form. The monomers are namely ÃŽ ²-D-Mannuronate and ÃŽ ±-L-Guluronate in Fig 2(B) and 2(D) respectively. The acid form of mannuronate and guluronate, is mannuronic acid and guluronic acid (Fig 2(C)) respectively. Figure 2(A) depicts the structure of sodium alginate in a linear form. Alginate is the salt of alginic acid and its simplest formula is NaC6H7O6 in Fig 2(A) (Mahmood et al., 2009). . 2(A) 2(B) 2(C) 2(D) Figure 2: Repeat unit of (A) Sodium alginate (B) guluronate, (C) guluronic acid and (D) mannuronate (Falkeborg et al., 2014) The monomers are linked through carbon 1 and 4 and have sequences forming blocks of MM(Fig 3(A)), GG(Fig 3(A)) or GM blocks in Fig 3(A) (Arzate-Và ¡zquez et al., 2012, Morais et al., 2013). Mannuronates and guluronates both have carboxylic group on the carbon 5 of their respective structures (Falkeborg et al., 2014). (A) G G M M (B) G G M M GMMMMGGGGGGGMGMGMGMGMMMMG (C) MM blocks GG blocks MG blocks MM blocks Figure 3: (A) Alginate structure with G and M repeat units, (B) showing the repeat of G and M joined together (C) block fractions of alginate polymer (Yuemei Lin et al., 2010) 1.3 Species of brown seaweeds Alginate are commercially manufactured mainly from Laminaria hyperborea, Macrocystis pyrifera, Laminaria digitata, Ascophyllumnodosum, Laminaria japonica, Eclonia maxima, Lessonia nigrescens, Durvillea Antarctica, Turbinaria conoides, Turbianria ornata and Turbinaria decurrens, Sargassum, Turbinaria ,Hormophysa, Cystoseira and Sargassum sp (Bertagnolli et al.,2014; Chennubhotla et al., 2013; Kaliaperumal et al., 1974). 1.4 Extraction of alginate Gomez et al., (2009) described the pre-treatment and the extraction of alginate from brown seaweed. The seaweed was crushed and was added to water to moisten the latter. 0.1 N Hydrochloric acid was added to the sample and the solution was stirred in order to reach a pH value of 4. This process was continued for 15 min at room temperature and the supernatant was eliminated. The pre-treatment was carried out three times for each sample using 0.1 N Hydrochloric acid. The extraction was followed by the addition of the pre-treated solution to a beaker with 1 N sodium carbonate (pH of solution 10). The mixture was stirred mechanically for a period of 2 hours at a temperature of 60 oC. To the extracted solution a silicon based rock was added and was stirred for 15 minutes. The mixture was then centrifuged to obtain the sodium alginate supernatant. Sodium alginate can be purified using three different routes namely (i) Ethanol route, (ii) Hydrochloric acid route and (iii) Calcium chloride route as summarised in scheme 1. (i) Ethanol pathway The ethanol pathway was performed by the direct precipitation of sodium alginate using ethanol. The precipitate was washed then with ethanol under soxhlet condition for 100 hours to obtain the pure biopolymer which was dried under vacuum. (ii) Alginic pathway The extract alginate was mixed up with 1 N of HCl at room temperature under constant stirring for 1 hour at a pH of 1. To obtain the alginic acid, the mixture was separated by centrifugation by adding water and 1 N sodium carbonate. The mixture was left at room temperature under stirring for 1 hour in order to obtain the soluble form of sodium alginate. The polymer was precipitated by the addition of 1:1 volume ratio of ethanol by the method described in the ethanol pathway. (iii) Calcium chloride pathway To the extract of sodium alginate, 1 M calcium chloride was added and the precipitate was thoroughly washed with distilled water using a soxhlet for 64 hours. The mixture was agitated at room temperature and distilled water was then added followed by the addition of 1 N Hydrochloric acid until a pH 2 was reached. The alginic acid which is insoluble was separated from the supernatant by centrifugation and the insoluble alginic acid was washed with 0.05 N HCl and the solution were stirred at room temperature. The precipitation of alginate was obtained by the addition of Na2CO3 to obtain sodium alginate. The purified alginate was collected by the soxhlet as discussed in the ethanol pathway. Scheme1. Extraction of alginate (Gomez et al., 2009) 1.5 Yield of alginate The yield of alginate is being affected by different factors such as the species, age, period of harvest, temperature of extraction, extracted with either alkali or acid and on the content of alginate in brown seaweed also the size of alginate also affects the yield.(Fertah et al., 2014) Seaweeds that are grown in summer show a lower content of alginate in the branches and stems (15.1 %) and no trace of alginate in the receptacles (Bertagnolli et al., 2014). Sample SS size is 1mm and BS for 1mmoC (51.8 for SS and 44.01for BS) but an increase in temperature proved to have a drastic decrease in the yield shown in table 2 (Fertah et al., 2014). Table 2. Yield of alginate at different size sample and temperature Size 1mm Temperature /o C 25 40 60 25 40 60 Yield/% 38.33 51.8 43.2 35.28 44.01 40.2 There are up to 40% of alginate content in brown seaweed and the content of alginate depending species of brown algae can vary from 10 to 25% (Yabur et al., 2006). The period of collected of seaweed Sargassum filipendula have different yield of alginate. During fall, spring and summer the yield are 17.0  ±0.1 %, 17.2 ±0.3 % and 15.1 ± 0.1 % respectively. The yield is lower in summer than spring and fall because summer algae have lower receptacle and branches which are characteristic in their reproductive period. (Bertagnolli et al., 2015). The yield of alginate is also affected to different species of Sargassum shown in table 3. The highest yield is from S.vulgare is 30.2 % and the lowest S.dentifulum is 3.3 %. Table 3: Yield % of alginate from different species of Sargassum Species of seaweed % Yield S.vulgare 30.2 S.polycystum 17.1-27.6 S.dentifilium 3.3 S.latifilium 17.7 S.asperifolium 12.4 S.oligocystum 16.3-20.5 S.fuiltans 21.1-24.5 S.filipendula 15.1-17.2 1.6 Biosynthesis of alginate The proposed biosynthesis of alginic acid in Fucus gardineri in the presence of bacteria Pseudomonas is shown in Scheme 2 (Lin and Hassid: 1966). Mannose 1-phosphate reacts with GTP/ H+ in the presence of mannose 1-phosphate guanyl transferase to produce GDP-ÃŽ ±-D-mannose and the by product is diphosphate. GDP-ÃŽ ±-D-mannose in the presence of enzyme GDP-mannose dehydrogenase react with water and NAD+ giving GDP-Mannuronate and finally reacting with GDP/H+ to give alginate. Scheme 2: Biosynthesis of alginate in brown seaweed Fucus gardineri and bacteria (Lin and Hassid; 1966) 1.7 Characterisation of alginate Extracted alginate may be characterised using a variety of techniques such as 1H-NMR, FT-IR, SEC, DSC, CHNS elemental analysis and viscosity. 1.7.1 1H-NMR 1H-NMR spectroscopy is used to determine the main structural pattern and composition of alginate. Structures of alginate are generally constituted of homopolymeric blocks i.e M and G blocks that can be separated by heteropolymeric of MG blocks. The M/G ratio has a strong effect on the physical properties of alginate. Figure 4:1H-NMR Spectra for solution of alginate form S. vulgare in D2O (a) SVLV (S.vulgare low viscosity) and (b) SVHV (S.vulgare High viscosity) (Torres et al., 2007) Figure 4 (a) and (b) show the 1H-NMR spectra of alginate extracted from SLHV and SLHV respectively. Peak I (5.06 ppm) was attributed to anomeric proton (G-1) guluronic acid, peak II (4.7 ppm) show the anomeric proton (M-1) of mannuronic acid and the C-5 alternating blocks (GM-5) which is overlapping each other at this peak and peak III (4.4 ppm) is for the anomeric peak of guluronic acid H-5 (G-5) (Torres et al., 2007). 1.7.2 FT-IR analysis FT-IR spectroscopy is used to determine the functional groups present in the structure of alginate. The FT-IR spectra of the extracted alginate from brown seaweed Turbinaria ornata is given in (figure 5). The bands which is around 800 cm-1 corresponds to the C-H which is ‘out plane’ of the aromatic ring. The peak near 1040 cm-1 is due to the stretching vibrations of C-O bond. The bands at 1230 and 1600 cm-1 corresponding to C-N stretching and N-H bending vibration respectively show the presence of aliphatic amine. The O-H alcoholic groups shows stretching vibrations band at around 3400 cm-1 and C=O stretching vibrations due to the carboxylic acids group present in the structure (Gowtham Sriram et al., 2014). Figure 5: FT-IR spectra of Turbinaria ornata seaweed (Gowtham Sriram et al., 2014) 1.7.3 CHNS elemental analysis Table 4 shows the result for elemental analysis for SVHV and SVLV and both sample proved to have similar results. The nitrogen content is due to the protein found in the seaweed. The % C are 27.7 and 28.1, %H are 5.15 and 4.4 for SVLV and SVHV respectively. The %N (nitrogen) is due to the presence of protein which contains amine groups in seaweed. % S are zero for both SVLV and SVHV (Torres at al., 2007) Table 4 : Analytical data of Sargassum Vulgare alginate Analytical parameter (m/m %) SVLV(S.Vulgare low viscosity SVHV(S.Vulgare high viscosity H 5.15 4.49 C 27.7 28.1 N 0.178 0.164 S 0 0 1.7.4. Viscosity Intrinsic viscosity is the measurement of hydrodynamic volume occupied by complex molecule at unlimited dilution in specific solvents at a given temperature. The intrinsic viscosity depends on the molar mass (Mv), composition and the sequences of M and G residues. Intrinsic viscosity is represented as equation 1 [ÆÅ ¾] = sp/C Equation (1) Where ÆÅ ¾sp is specific viscosity and ÆÅ ¾sp/C is reduced viscosity Another equation of reduced viscosity is defined as ÆÅ ¾red = Equation (2) the intrinsic viscosity was found by the classical method of a plotting straight line graph according to the Huggin’s Equation (3) to which [ÆÅ ¾] y-intercept is obtained. ÆÅ ¾red = [ÆÅ ¾] + kH[ÆÅ ¾]2 C Equation (3) Graph of reduced viscosity versus alginate concentration for SVLV and SVHV sample shown in figure 6 (Torres et al., 2007). Figure 6: Specific viscosity of SVLV (S.Vulgare low viscosity) and SVHV(S.vulgare high viscosity) The viscosities were performed in 0.1 N NaCl at 25 oC for both SVLV and SVHV. Intrinsic viscosites are 6.9 and 4.14 g/dL for SVLV and SVHV respectively (Torres et al., 2007). Table 5 shows different [ÆÅ ¾] for different species of brown seaweed. High vis The intrinsic viscosities of S.Vulgare algiante ranges from (2.5-15.4) g/dL cosity was found SVLV due to high content of MM blocks. Table 5 :Intrinsic viscosity and average molar masses of alginates from different sources(Torres et al., 2007) Alginate source [ÆÅ ¾] (dL/g) Mwa 105 (g/mol) L. hyperborean 6.4 3.05 F. vesiculosus 2.5 1.17 A. nodosum 2.8 1.32 L. japonica 15.4 7.44 S. fluitans 6.30 3.00 S. dentifolium 12.6 6.06 S. asperifolium 15.2 7.34 S. latifolium 8.7 4.16 S. vulgare This study 4.1 1.94 LV (low viscosity ) HV (high viscosity) 6.9 3.30 1.7.4.1. Molar mass Molar mass (Mv) is determined by using the Mark-Houwink equation (4), [ÆÅ ¾] = k Mva - Equation (4) where k and a are empirical coefficients that are dependent on the polymer and the solvent-temperature system used. As for alginate, a value ranges from 0.73 to 1.31 can be acquired depending on the composition of alginate and ionic strength. G-rich alginate has higher a values while lower a values are observed in M-rich alginate which is flexible in nature Proposed empirical relations for [ņ¹] and the weight-average molar mass (Mw) for SVHV and SVLV was computed using equation 4 and the result shown in table 3 [ÆÅ ¾] = 0.023 Mw 0.984 - Equation 4 where [ÆÅ ¾] is given in dL/g and M in kDaltons. The a value used is 0.984 which is different on at specific solvent used. Average molar mass for SVHV was higher than SVLV and similar values to S.fluitans. SVLV has a lower value than other Sargassum species reported in table 5 (Torres et al., 2007). 1.8 Uses of alginate Alginate has many areas of application. For example in food industry and is use to stabilise mixture dispersion and emulsion which increase the viscosity of the gel and forms gel such as jam and jellies. Alginate gel films are also utilized in the food industry as edible films on fruits and vegetables and as coatings designed to improve stored meat quality, industrial and pharmaceutics because the water in alginate has the ability to hold and form gel, to form and stabilise emulsion, textile industry, rubber adhesive paper products, cosmetics and in dental mould (Chennubhotla et al., 2013; Crossingham et al., 2014). Alginate also protects against carcinogenic substances, it clears the digestive system and protects the membrane of the stomach and intestine. Alginate is used in the manufacturing of soft capsules and is consumed as beverage for lowering blood sugar level. Alginate is used in the textile industry as an additive for textile and has also been investigated recently in the composition in vaginal film dosage in pharmaceutical industries and alginate is also used in wound dressings (Paul et al., 2004).